![]() ![]() In this review, we will discuss the regulation of the HPA axis and its development. Together, these changes can potentially lead to a disruption in neuroendocrine, behavioral, autonomic, and metabolic functions in adulthood. Abnormal development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis can further result in long-term alterations in neuropeptide and neurotransmitter synthesis in the central nervous system, as well as glucocorticoid hormone synthesis in the periphery. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a complex system of neuroendocrine pathways and feedback loops that function to maintain physiological homeostasis. ![]() 2Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ, United States.1Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States. ![]()
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